NEUTRON STRUCTURE HISTORY
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural philosopher in New Energy) July 8, 2015 Historically after the discovery of neutron by Chadwick (1932) physicists believed that it has no charge and such a wrong idea led to the development of fallacious nuclear theories and models. In fact, the neutron does have a magnetic moment g = - 1.913. It may seem strange that an assumed uncharged object has a magnetic moment. We should bear in mind , however, that even in classical physics the absence of charge means only that the integral of the charge distribution vanishes. For example a spinning oblate spheroid that carries a negative charge say (-Q) existing along the periphery and an equal positive charge (+Q) existing at its center will have a negative magnetic moment and zero net charge because (+ Q - Q = 0 ). The neutron has a mass of 1.675/1027 Kg = 939.57 MeV/c2 which is slightly greater than the proton mass. Although the protons and neutrons account for nearly all of the observed mass in the universe, these particles have a complicated structure. The first indication that nucleons ( protons and neutrons ) have an internal structure was a measurement of the proton magnetic moment, which led to the 1943 Nobel Prize being awarded to Otto Stern. According to the experiments a very small particle like the electron, has a magnetism (magnetic moment) with a magnitude g = 1. But for the spin -1/2 proton, g = 2.793. Thus, the proton has an internal structure. In the quantum mechanics, the probability of scattering an electron from the proton is directly related to its charge distributions. The investigation of the spatial structure of the proton was led by Stanford experiments in the 1950s, for which Robert Hofstadter was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize. On the other hand even though the neutron is a neutral particle, the magnetic moment of a neutron is not zero. Since the neutron is a neutral particle, it is not affected by electric fields, but with its magnetic moment it is affected by magnetic fields. The magnetic moment of the neutron is an indication of its internal charge distribution. The value for the neutron's magnetic moment was first directly measured by Luis Alvarez and Felix Bloch at Berkeley, California in 1940, using an extension of the magnetic resonance methods developed by Rabi. Alvarez and Bloch determined the magnetic moment of the neutron to be g = -1.93. The simplified classical view of the neutron's charge distribution also "explains" the fact that the neutron magnetic dipole points in the opposite direction from its spin angular momentum vector (as compared to the proton). This gives the neutron, in effect, a magnetic moment which resembles a negatively charged particle. This can be reconciled classically with a neutral neutron composed of a charge distribution in which the negative sub-parts of the neutron have a larger average radius of distribution, and therefore contribute more to the particle's magnetic dipole moment, than do the positive parts that are, on average, nearer the core. By 1960 the study of protons and neurons, which was expected to clarify the nature of nuclear force, had instead spawned a bewildering array of particles whose production and decay modes defied understanding with the framework of existing models. In the late 1950s and early 1960s various schemes were proposed and then discarded with disconcerting regularity. The grouping of these particles led to the so-called quark model proposed independently by M. Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964. In other words the first understanding of the proton and neutron structure came from the quark model , which describes the proton and neutron, and other subatomic particles, as being made up of 3 massive quarks. However Quantum mechanics requires incorrectly that in addition to 3 valence quarks there be quark-antiquark pairs, a meson cloud. Under such a wrong hypothesis the structure of protons and neutrons appear to be dominated by the fallacious meson cloud, based on the Yukawa wrong meson theory (1935). Moreover today many physicists based on the wrong theory of quantum chromodynamics (1973) believe incorrectly to the scheme (udd) and to the fallacious gluons and color forces. For example in the “Neutron-WIKIPEDIA” one reads the following wrong paragraphs: “The neutron is classified as a hadron, since it is composed of quarks, and as a baryon, since it is composed of three quarks. The finite size of the neutron and its magnetic moment indicate the neutron is a composite, rather than elementary, particle. The neutron consists of two down quarks with charge −⅓ e and one up quark with charge +⅔ e, although this simple model belies the complexities of the Standard Model for nuclei. The masses of the three quarks sum to only about 12 MeV/c2, whereas the neutron's mass is about 940 MeV/c2, for example. Like the proton, the quarks of the neutron are held together by the strong force, mediated by gluons.The nuclear force results from secondary effects of the more fundamental strong force.” Historically, the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) along with the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) led to the abandonment of electromagnetic laws in favor of wrong theories which could not lead to the structure of proton and neutron. Under this physics crisis in 2003 I published my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism ” by reviving the natural laws which led to my discovery of 288 quarks in nucleons including 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron able to give the nuclear binding and nuclear structure by applying the well-established laws of electromagnetism. (See my papers of nuclear structure in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS ). ' ' DISCOVERY OF 9 CHARGED QUARKS IN PROTON AND 12 ONES IN NEUTRON EXISTING AMONG 288 QUARKS IN NUCLEONS Although in my published paper of 2003 I discovered 9 charges quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron, able to give the nuclear structure by applying the electromagnetic laws, today many physicists influenced by the invalid relativity and the various contradicting nuclear theories based on the WRONG STANDARD MODEL continue to believe that the proton is composed of 3 quarks with fallacious gluons which cannot lead to the proton and neutron structure. So in the “Proton-WIKIPEDIA” one reads the following wrong ideas: “In the modern Standard Model of particle physics, the proton is a hadron, and like the neutron, the other nucleon (particle present in atomic nuclei), is composed of three quarks. Prior to that model becoming a consensus in the physics community, the proton was considered a fundamental particle. In the modern view, a proton is composed of three valence quarks: two up quarks and one down quark. The rest masses of the quarks are thought to contribute only about 1% of the proton's mass. The remainder of the proton mass is due to the kinetic energy of the quarks and to the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together.” Under this physics crisis in my published paper of 2003 one can study carefully my discovery of the 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron because the fallacious gluons of the quantum chromodynamics lead to complications. Since the two up quarks of the WRONG STANDARD MODEL lead to complications, let us analyze carefully the following experimental relation of the proton having mass M in case in which it spins like a spinning disk. μ/S = 2.79278(e/M) Note that according to the deep inelastic scattering the negative charge –q of the proton is limited at the center. Then taking into account that the uniform charge distribution of the two up quarks of the wrong Standard Model cannot justify the above relation we may assume that the positive charge +Q exists along the periphery. Also in this case the charge distribution of +Q = +4e/3 cannot justify the above relation. Under these difficulties one may assume that the integer number n of real charged quarks is greater than the number 2 given by the theory of quantum Chromodynamics. That is, n>2 where n = 3, 4.... Under this condition +Q = nu = n(+2e/3) According to the electromagnetic laws the magnetic moment + μ of a disk spinning with a frequency ν and having the positive charge +Q along the periphery the magnetic moment +μ is given by +μ = + Qν πR2 = n(+2e/3) νπR2 where R is the radius of the disk. Whereas the spin S of the disk with mass M is given by S = 0.5 MωR2 = 0.5M(2πν) R2 In other words the above experimental relation can be written as μ/ S= νπR2 / [ 0.5M(2πν)R2] = +2.79218(e/M) But in this relation the n cannot be an integer number when the proton behaves like a spinning disk. In a simple discussion the picture of the proton could be as a rather oblate spheroid associated with the spin having a factor t characterizing the shape between a sphere and a disk. Since a spinning sphere of radius R and mass M has S = 0.4Mω R2 we can say that 0.5 > t > 0.4. Under such a reasonable assumption we found that n = 4. Then the above experimental relation can be written as μ/S =4(+2e/3)νπR2 / tM(2πν)R2 = 2.79218(e/M) or 8/6t = 2.79218 Thus solving for t one gets t = 0.47742 In other words according to the experiments and the applications of natural laws we see that the proton is an oblate spheroid which has 4 up quarks (4u) with +Q = +8e/3 existing along the periphery . Since +Q - q = +1e one concludes also that a negative charge -q = -5e/3 exists at the center. Since a down quark (d) has a negative charge( d =-e/3), it means that the proton contains also at the center 5 down quarks (5d). On the other hand to describe the structure of the neutron under the (udd) scheme with fallacious gluons one leads to the same complications. So taking into account the symmetry properties of nucleons, that the current distributions with neutron and proton are quite similar a structure of neutron analogous to proton is obtained by assuming that a negative charge - Q = -8e/3 = 8d is along the periphery , while the positive charge +Q = +8e/3 = 4u is limited at the center. Hence for a neutron radius R equal to the proton radius R the current of -Q with an angular velocity ω generates μ as μ = (8e/3)(ω/2)R2 Whereas for a neutron mass M equal to a proton mass M the spin S of neutron may be given by S = tMωR2 Then comparing the above equations we get the experimental value μ/S = -1.91315(e/M) when t = 0.69693. That is 1 > t > 0.5 characterizing a shape between a ring and a disk. This value is not surprising for an oblate spheroid of neutron, since the mass of 8d quarks existing along the periphery is much greater than the mass of 4u existing at the center of the spinning neutron. Note that these charge distributions of protons and neutrons satisfy the conservation of charge in the beta decay. That is n( 8e/3 - 8e/3) = p(8e/3 - 5e/3) + (-e) while the simple quark model of three quarks in proton or neutron leads to complications and suffers from deficiencies . For example the applications of electromagnetic laws by using the simple quark model cannot give the experimental value of the nuclear force, while such charged quarks at the size of protons and neutrons give the experimental binding energy E = -2.2246 MeV of the deuteron. Note that this binding energy rejects Einstein’s fallacious theories of relativity because the binding energy turns into the energy of the generated photon and the so- called mass defect turns into the mass of the generated photon. In the same way in the Bohr model the binding energy of -13.6 eV turns into the energy of the generated photon and the so-called mass defect turns into the mass of the generated photon. (See my PHOTON-MATTER INTERACTION ). It is of interest to note that the stability of proton is due to the structure of proton having 93 quark triads and extra 4u with 5d , while the free neutron is unstable because it has 92 quark triads and extra 4u with 8d. Moreover such extra quark led to the discovery of 288 quarks in nucleons. As a result the proton has 93 (dud) neutral quark triads. Among them there are 4u charged quarks distributed along the periphery and 5d charged quarks limited in the center. Whereas the neutron has 92 (dud) neutral quark triads and among them are distributed 8d charged quarks existing along the periphery and 4u charged quarks limited in the center. So, the structure of protons and neutrons is given by PROTON = + 4u +5d . = 288 quarks NEUTRON = + 8d + 4u= 288 quarks After a careful analysis I found the masses of up and down quarks as d = 3.69348645 MeV/c2 ''' and '''u = 2.40016645 MeV/c2 which give not only the masses Mn = 939.565378 MeV/c2 ' '''and Mp = 938.272046 MeV/c2 of neutron and proton respectively but also the difference Mn - Mp = 1.293332 MeV/c2 which is exactly equal to d - u. That is, d - u = 3.69348645 - 2.40016645 = 1.293332 MeV/c2 . However in "[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_quark Down quark- '''WIKIPEDIA']" '''and in "[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_quark Up quark-'''WIKIPEDIA]" one can see the confusing values as d = ( 4.1 - 5.7) = 4.9 MeV/ c2 or a so-called precise value d = 4.79 MeV/c2 . u = (1.7 - 3.1) = 2.4 MeV/c2 or a so-called precise value u = 2.01 MeV/c2'.' 'Of course these values are wrong because the difference d - u = 4.79 - 2.01 = 2.78 MeV/c2 is greater than the correct value Mn - Mp = 1.293332 MeV/c2. ' Ever since the quark model was proposed extensive searches have been made for evidence of the existence of quarks as free particles. As yet there has been no decisive evidence for the existence of free quarks. Category:Fundamental physics concepts